Impact of spaceflight on endocrine, metabolic and kidney function: current evidence, open issues, and potential countermeasures

Changes in endocrine and kidney functions have been associated with spaceflight. Here, we discuss the most relevant evidence about the impact of spaceflight on the cardiometabolic system, the cardiorenal function and the reproductive/gonadal axis. Notably, these changes appear to be interrelated with other organ/system functions, suggesting the need of a systemic approach leading to a more comprehensive understanding of physiological and health-related impacts of the space environment. Therefore, this review will also focus on the need to move space endocrinological research to multi-omics approaches and the implementation of “machine learning” and “data mining” strategies.